Stonehenge

From TinWiki.org

Rainbow over Stonehenge

Stonehenge is a prehistoric monument on Salisbury Plain in southwestern England that dates from about 3000-1000 BC. The monument, now a ruin, consists of a circular group of large upright stones surrounded by a circular earthwork. It is the best preserved and most celebrated of the megalithic monuments in Europe.

It is unknown what purpose Stonehenge served, but scholars believe it was used as a ceremonial or religious center. Archaeological evidence also suggests it was used as a burial ground.

Stonehenge is not a single structure, but a series of structures, rebuilt, revised, and remodeled over a period of around 1,500 years. Not much is known about who built Stonehenge, but some believed it was built by Celtic Druid priests. Others believed the Romans built it. But, archaeological evidence showed that work on the monument began 2,000 years before the Celts and Romans arrived in the area. Now, it is believed that Neolithic peoples of the British Isles began construction on Stonehenge around 5,000 years ago.

Stonehenge itself is owned by the Crown and managed by English Heritage; the surrounding land is owned by the National Trust.

The stones today at Stonehenge represent the monument in ruin. Many of the original stones in the structure have fallen or been removed by previous generations. There has been serious damage to some of the smaller bluestones (due to close visitor contact that was prohibited in 1978) and the prehistoric carvings on the sarsen stones show signs of significant wear.

1 Construction
2 Purpose
3 Modern Day Stonehenge
4 Further Reading
5 Also On tinWiki
6 External Links
7 ATS Discussion Threads

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Construction

Stonehenge: What's left of original structure; top shaded blocks are still standing today

Archaeological evidence suggests that the construction of Stonehenge happened in three main phases. The earliest was completed about 2900 BC and consisted of a circular ditch dug by deer antlers which measured 360 feet in diameter and 5 feet deep. Excavated material was used to build a circular embankment along the inside rim of the ditch, along the inner edge of which were dug 56 pits called Aubrey Holes that may have once held wooden posts.

In the second phase of construction, lasting from around 2900 to 2500 BC, new timber structures went up at Stonehenge. Timber posts were raised in the flat ground at the center of the encircling ditch. Posts were also erected at a break in the ditch to the northeast; this served as an entrance to the site.

The third phase of construction consisted of repeated transformations which radically changed the monument; this phase lasted from 2550 to 1600 BC. Around 80 pillars of igneous rock, named bluestone due to the bluish color of the stone, were raised near the center of the site in two concentric circles. The bluestone came from the Preseli Mountains in southwest Wales, about 137 miles from Stonehenge. Some of the rocks weigh as much as four tons each, and it is theorized that they were transported by sea, river, and overland routes.

Modern theories speculate that the stones were transported by roller and sledge from the mountains to the headwaters of Milford Haven, where they were loaded onto rafts, barges, or boats and sailed along the south coast of Wales, then up the Rivers Avon and Frome to a point in present day Somerset. From there, the stones were hauled overland again, to a place near Warminster, around 6 miles way from Stonehenge. From there, the stones were floated on rafts down the River Wylye to Salisbury, then up to Salisbury Avon to West Amesbury. That left a 2 mile overland haul to the site of the monument.

Soon after, the bluestone circles were dismantled, and huge blocks of sandstone called sarsen were brought in from Marlborough Downs, 25 miles north of Stonehenge. Thirty of these pillars of sarsen were raised in a circle of 130 feet in diameter; this is known as the Sarsen Circle. Each pillar stood 13 feet above the ground and mounted across the top of the 30 pillars was a continuous ring of sarsen crosspieces, or lintels. The lintels were matched together with tongue and groove joints and attached to the pillars with mortise and tenon joints. Of the 30 original pillars, 17 remain standing today along with six of the lintels.

Unlike the bluestones, the sarsens had to be transported over land with no water to help. Most of the journey from their originating point to the monument's site was easy, but at the steepest point of the journey, Redhorn Hill, modern studies theorize that it would have taken at least 600 men to get each stone over the pass.

Within the Sarsen Circle, an enormous horseshoe shaped structure was erected which opens to the northeast, toward the entrance of the structure. The horseshoe was constructed of five pairs of massive upright blocks of sarsen, each weighing more than 40 tons. A stone lintel on top of each pair makes each into an archway called a trilithon. The trilithons increase in height toward the central and largest, which measures 24 feet above the ground. Three of the five original trilithons remain standing today, along with their lintels.

Other features were added to Stonehenge during the third phase of construction, like the Altar Stone, a block of greenish sandstone that sits at the base of the central trilithon near the center of the horseshoe. Although the Altar Stone now lies flat on the ground, it was once standing upright. Like the bluestones, the Altar Stone came from Wales. Inside the interior of the embankment, four stones, station stones, were erected, two of which are still standing. The station stones were raised in a line with the older Aubrey Holes; imaginary lines connect the stones opposite each other intersect at the center of the monument. Also, more Sarsen stones were placed near the entrance of the monument; the two that stand today are called the Slaughter Stone and the Heel Stone. The Heel Stone stands just outside the encircling ditch on the Avenue, a ceremonial approach to Stonehenge.

In following years, the bluestones were rearranged again. Eventually, some were used to erect a circle of pillars between the Sarsen Circle and the trilithon horseshoe. Also, a horseshoe of bluestone pillars was raised inside the trilithon horseshoe.

The sophisticated engineering at Stonehenge suggests that it was built by people who were skilled in making great structures out of timber.

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Purpose

Questions abound about the purpose of Stonehenge. Most scholars believe that the monument must have been a sacred place, a place of religious rituals and ceremonies. Some have theorized that the monument was built by Sun worshipers due to the fact that the axis of Stonehenge, which divides the Sarsen horseshoe and aligns with the entrance, is oriented toward the direction of the midsummer sunrise. Ireland's Newgrange, built around the same time as Stonehenge, was oriented toward the midwinter sunrise. Yet others believe that Stonehenge was an astronomical observatory and calendar of surprising complexity, despite the fact that it is questionable as to whether the people who built the monument possessed the mathematical knowledge to predict events like solstices and eclipses.

Archaeological digs have uncovered a large settlement at Durrington Walls, about 2 miles from Stonehenge, which dates to 2600 to 2500 BC. This settlement consisted of wooden structures laid out in the same pattern as the monument and probably housed workers who built Stonehenge. However, remains of large amounts of pottery and animal bones around the site may suggest that the settlement housed people who came to the monument to celebrate. In another area of Durrington Walls, houses surrounded by fences were discovered, believed to have been used by priests or that may have been used in cult rituals. Excavators believe that Durrington Walls and Stonehenge were connected and that the monument was part of a much greater complex used for funeral rites and rituals.

More evidence points to Stonehenge being a burial site from the time of its construction. Radiocarbon dating of excavated cremations suggests that people were buried at the monument from around 3000 BC until after 2500 BC. It was likely the largest cemetery of its time in Britain, with remains of 240 men, women, and children, all cremated and buried there. Artifacts found in the graves, like the head of a stone mace, lead researchers to believe that Stonehenge may have served as a cemetery for an elite or ruling class.

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Modern Day Stonehenge

Stonehenge (full view)

Stonehenge is set in a vast plain, surrounded by hundreds of round barrows (burial mounds). Some see it as a place steeped in magic and mystery, others see it as sacred, others as a place where imagination can be run wild. The monument is not what it once was, but is glorious in its ruin, still a place of inspiration, awe, and worship.

The site was partially restored from 1901 through 1964, and the restoration attempts were criticized by some. Some say that the history of the site is being lost.

Stonehenge is a place of pilgrimage for neo-druids, as well as others who practice pagan and neo-pagan beliefs. The midsummer sunrise has attracted people to the monument since the 1870s, and the first record of recreated Druidism practices started in 1905, when the Ancient Order of Druids enacted a ceremony. In recent years, Stonehenge has become more and more associated with British Druidism, Neo-paganism, and New Age philosophy. The monument was the site of a free festival from 1972 to 1984, but the festival was stopped in 1985 and since then, ritual use of Stonehenge is carefully controlled.

Stonehenge was open to the public until 1978. Visitors were allowed to walk among the stones and even climb on them. When stone erosion was noticed, the stones were roped off in 1978. Visitors are no longer permitted to touch the stones, but they can walk around monument from a short distance away.

English Heritage does open the site, allowing people inside the circle of stones, during the summer and winter solstices and the spring and autumnal equinoxes.

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